A review on basalt fibre and its composites
V.FioreaT.ScaliciaG.Di BellabA.Valenzaa
Link:A review on basalt fibre and its composites - ScienceDirect AbstractIn recent years, both industrial and academic world are focussing their attention toward the development of sustainable composites, reinforced with natural fibres. In particular, among the natural fibres (i.e. animal, vegetable or mineral) that can be used as reinforcement, the basalt ones represent the most interesting for their properties. The aim of this review is to illustrate the results of research on this topical subject. In the introduction, mechanical, thermal and chemical properties of basalt fibre have been reviewed. Moreover, its main manufacturing technologies have been described. Then, the effect of using this mineral fibre as reinforcement of different matrices as polymer (both thermoplastic and thermoset), metal and concrete has been presented. Furthermore, an overview on the application of this fibre in biodegradable matrix composites and in hybrid composites has been provided. Finally, the studies on the industrial applications of basalt fibre reinforced composites have been reviewed. IntroductionBasalt is a natural material that is found in volcanic rocks originated from frozen lava, with a melting temperature comprised between 1500° and 1700 °C [1], [2]. Its state is strongly influenced by the temperature rate of quenching process that leads to more or less complete crystallization. Perhaps 80% of basalts are made up by two essential minerals; i.e. plagiocene and pyroxene. Analyzing the chemical composition it is possible to observe that SiO2 is the main constituent and Al2O3 is the second one [1], [3], [4]. In Table 1 is reported the typical composition, as identified by Militky et al. [1] and Deák et al. [3]. Basalt fibre, which was developed by Moscow Research Institute of Glass and Plastic in 1953–1954, is a high-tech fibre invented by the former Soviet Union after 30 years of research and development, and its first industrial production furnace that adopted 200 nozzles drain board combination oven bushing process was completed in 1985 at Ukraine fibre laboratory [5]. The base cost of basalt fibres varies in dependence of the quality and type of raw material, production process and characteristics of the final product. As the cost, the chemical and mechanical properties depend from the composition of the raw material. Differences in terms of composition and elements concentration give difference in thermal and chemical stability and more or less good mechanical and physical properties [6]. Overall, the manufacturing process of this kind of fibre is similar to that of glass fibre, but with less energy consumed and no additives, which makes it cheaper than glass or carbon fibres. Using a natural volcanic basalt rock as raw material, basalt fibre is produced by putting raw material into furnace where it is melted at 1450–1500 °C. After this, the molten material is forced through a platinum/rhodium crucible bushings to create fibres. This technology, named continuous spinning, can offer the reinforcement material in the form of chopped fibres or continuous fibres, that can be used in the textile field manufacturing process and have a great potential application to composite materials. In addition to the ability to be easily processed using conventional processes and equipments, the basalt fibres do not contain any other additives in a single producing process, which makes additional advantage in cost [7]. Blowing melt technologies are proposed for the production of short and cheap basalt fibres characterized by poor mechanical properties [3]. Continuous basalt fibres are produced by spinneret method (see Fig. 1) similarly to glass fibres. Recently, Kim et al. [8] proposed melt-spinning method based on dielectric heating in order to produce fibres on laboratory scale.The increasing application of basalt fibre raised the question whether basalt fibre is harmful to health.Even if asbestos and basalt fibres present similar composition, basalt seems to be safe, because of different morphology and surface properties avoid any carcinogenic or toxicity effects, which are presented by asbestos instead [9], [10]. In particular, Kogan et al. [11] made rats inhale air containing asbestos and basalt fibres for 6 months. In the case of asbestos fibres at a dose of 1.7 g kg−1 (referred to the body weight of the rat), one third of the animals died, while a dose of 2.7 g kg−1 killed all the rats. In the case of the basalt fibre, all the animals survived even when the dose reached the 10 g kg−1 concentration. Similar investigations were conducted by McConnell et al. [12] and they also concluded that basalt fibres pose no risk to human beings. It is know that the fibrous fragments with diameter (d) of 1.5 μm or less and length (l) of 8 μm or greater should be handled and disposed of using the widely accepted procedures for asbestos. Fibres falling within the following three criteria are of concern [13]: • fibres with diameters lower than 1.5 μm (some say <3.5 μm) remain airborne and are respirable;• fibres with an l/d aspect ratio higher than 3 do not seem to cause the serious problems associated with asbestos;• fibres durable in the lungs do not cause problems if they are decomposed in the lungs. Since most of nonpolymeric fibres have diameter significantly higher than 3.5 μm but break into long thin pieces, emission of particles, including fibres, occurs during handling. For simulation of these phenomena, the abrasion of basalt weaves was made by Militký et al. [1]. The experimental results showed that, because the mean value of fibre fragment diameter is the same as diameter of fibres, no splitting of fibres during fracture occurs. The aspect ratio l/d of basalt fibre fragments is equal to 20.8, higher than the critical value. Overall basalt fibres show several advantages, which make them a good alternative to glass fibres as reinforcing material in composites used in several fields such as marine, automotive, sporting equipment, civil, etc. In particular, basalt fibres have mechanical properties similar to those of glass ones (see Table 2). Moreover, basalt fibres are non-combustible, they have high chemical stability [4], [15], and good resistance to weather, alkaline and acids exposure. Moreover, basalt fibres can be used from very low temperatures (i.e. about −200 °C) up to the comparative high temperatures (i.e. in the range 600–800 °C) [3], [7], [16], [17], [18]. The thermal stability that depend from the composition of the raw material and the presence of a large amount of micro-pores that prevent convection and thermal radiation of the air are reasons to think to use basalt fibres fabrics in thermal insulation and passive fire protection applications [6], [19], [20]. In particular, the thermal gravimetric analysis performed by Hao and Yu [20] shows that the mass loss occurs in the temperature range of 200–350 °C for both basalt and glass fibres (Fig. 2). However, the basalt fibre has better thermal stability than glass fibre. In Table 3 the parameters of thermal decomposition of the fibres from analysis of TG curves are reported (To the onset temperature of the decomposition, Ti the temperature at which the mass loss is maximal, Tt the terminal temperature of the decomposition).The main factor determining the heat temperature stability of basalt fibres is their crystallization behaviour. Crystallization ability primarily depends on fibre chemical composition as well as heat treatment conditions. In particular, due to its high content of iron oxides, crystallization in basalt fibre begins with oxidation of ferrous cations and formation of spinel structure phase on the fibre surface: i.e. divalent cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+) diffuse from the interior to the surface where they react with environmental oxygen forming nanocrystalline layers CaO, MgO, (Mg,Fe)3O4. Moreover, with increasing temperature the crystallization of pyroxene phases takes place on the spinel crystals, which act as nucleation sites. The crystallization of continuous basalt fibre during heat treatment was studied in details [21], [22]. It is worth nothing that the crystallization ability of basalt fibre can be selectively controlled by doping with other elements: for instance, the effect of zirconium oxide on the crystallization and thermal stability of basalt fibres was analyzed by Lipatov et al. [23]. For the first time, the chemical durability of basalt fibre was studied by Ramachandran et al. as early as 1981 [24]. The authors stated that this fibre has excellent resistance to alkaline attack, but it has poor resistance to acids. The better mechanical behaviour of the basalt fibres than glass ones after corrosion treatments was then shown by Nasir et al. [25]. Even if the corrosion mechanism is similar, the degradation in E-glass fibres is more severe and it is concluded that basalt fibres would be a suitable replacement in corrosive environments. However, other authors showed better resistance of the basalt fibres in acid environment rather than in alkali one [4]. The ageing of glass and basalt fibres with different chemical constitutions in NaOH and cement solutions was carried out by Scheffler et al. [16]. They showed that the corrosion in NaOH solution leads to a strong dissolution of the outer layer of the glass and basalt fibres, whereas during ageing in cement solution at the same pH-value a limited, local attack is revealed. In particular, in NaOH solution the failure stress steadily decreases, being interrupted by phases of increasing stresses. In contrast, the filaments in cement solution do not reveal decreasing failure stresses over a vast interval of temperature and time. Rybin et al. [26] showed that the zirconia coating slows down the corrosion of basalt fibre in alkali solution, with higher extent by applying dense zirconia coating than the porous coating on fibre surface. Moreover, the uncoated and coated basalt fibres were used as reinforcements in cement matrix showing that the surface of the coated fibre is affected by the alkaline medium of the cement matrix to a smaller extent than the surface of as-received basalt fibre. High modulus, good strength and elastic behaviour make also this kind of fibres a good alternative to the traditional ones and in particular, continuous basalt fibres are competitive with glass fibres [3]. In Fig. 3, the tensile test diagrams of E-glass (GF), short basalt fibres (SB) and continuous basalt fibres from three different manufacturers (CB1, CB2, CB3) are shown. All tested fibres have a rigid behaviour, without plastic deformation. The tensile modulus and strength of continuous basalt fibres and glass fibre are quite similar, while short basalt fibres are considerably less stiff. Several authors showed how this kind of fibre, in terms of resistance and moduli, is comparable or better than glass fibres. For this reason, it is possible to consider them as a valid alternative to those one [10]. The mechanical strength of basalt fibres is thought to be closely related to the presence of surface heterogeneities such as surface flaws, structure defects and impurities [27]. These heterogeneities make the measured mechanical properties remarkably lower than their maximum theoretical values. Wei et al. [28], [29] have synthesized by Sol-Gel method coatings made from pure epoxy and SiO2 nanoparticle modified epoxy composite and from epoxy/SiO2 hybrid material, with the aim to modify the basalt fibres by the synthesized epoxy/SiO2 hybrid material. The experimental results showed that the hybrid coating is formed on the surface of the basalt fibres, the surface roughness of basalt fibres is increased and the tensile strength of basalt fibre multifilament yarn is improved. In particular, when the content of SiO2 was 5%, the modification effect has reached its best performance.Another feature of the basalt fibres is their good compatibility with the matrix materials even if there are some research focused on the surface treatment of these fibres in order to modify their surface morphology and improve their wettability with the matrix material [30], [31]. Section snippets Thermoset polymer In these last years, basalt fibres were used as reinforcement of thermoset polymers as epoxy, polyester and vinyl ester resins to manufacture composite structures useful in several applications. In particular, due to its good features as mechanical properties, resistance to moisture absorption and to corrosive liquids and environments, durability in service and great versatility, the epoxy resin has been the thermoset polymer most commonly investigated as matrix for basalt fibre reinforced Metallic matrices As discussed in the previous section of this review, basalt fibres have been widely used as reinforcement both of thermoset and of thermoplastic polymers in the last decades. Due to their ceramic nature and to their less price than other ceramic fibres, basalt fibres represent a good candidate as reinforcing components also in metallic matrices. Nevertheless, the applicability of basalt fibre as a reinforcing material for metal–matrix composites (MMCs) has been marginally investigated. Casting Concrete matrices Thanks to their excellent properties, basalt fibres have been used also as reinforcement for concrete materials. In particular, Li and Su [119], [120] showed that the addition of basalt fibre can significantly improve deformation and energy absorption capacities of geopolymeric concrete while there is no notable improvement in dynamic compressive strength. Jiang et al. [121] showed that adding basalt fibres reduces markedly dry shrinkage of cement mortar, especially at early ages. Moreover, the Industrial applications Thanks to their optimal properties, basalt fibres could be widely applied to many fields, such as corrosion resistance stuff in the chemical industry [140], wear and friction stuff in the automobile industry [141], target area of anti-low velocity impact [102], reinforcing material in construction [6], high temperature-insulation of automobile catalysts [142], fire protection [143] and resistance [144]. In the automotive, basalt fibres are widely used for production of car headliners. The main Conclusions Basalt fibres can be considered environmentally friendly and non-hazardous materials. It is not a new material, but its applications are surely innovative in many industrial and economic fields, from building and construction to energy efficiency, from automotive to aeronautic, thanks to its good mechanical, chemical and thermal performances. Hence, basalt fibre has gained increasing attention as a reinforcing material especially compared to traditional glass fibres. The production process, even Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to all the publishers (e.g. Elsevier Publishers, SAGE, Springer, John Wiley and Sons) and authors who permitted to use figures and tables from their publications. References (145)• Z.S. Wu et al.Tensile fatigue behaviour of FRP and hybrid FRP sheets
Compos Part B(2010)• R. Petrucci et al.Mechanical characterisation of hybrid composite laminates based on basalt fibres in combination with flax, hemp and glass fibres manufactured by vacuum infusion
Mat Des(2013)• I.D.G. Ary Subagia et al.Effect of stacking sequence on the flexural properties of hybrid composites reinforced with carbon and basalt fibres
Compos B Eng(2014)• T. CziganySpecial manufacturing and characteristics of basalt fibre reinforced hybrid polypropylene composites: mechanical properties and acoustic emission study
Compos Sci Technol(2006)• T. Tábi et al.Investigation of injection moulded poly(lactic acid) reinforced with long basalt fibres
Compos Part A(2014)• D. Kurniawan et al.Atmospheric pressure glow discharge plasma polymerization for surface treatment on sized basalt fibre/polylactic acid composites
Compos Part B(2012)• L. Mészáros et al.Preparation and mechanical properties of injection moulded polyamide 6 matrix hybrid nanocompositi
Compos Sci Technol(2013)• J. Wang et al.Combined effects of fibre/matrix interface and water absorption on the tribological behaviors of water-lubricated polytetrafluoroethylene-based composites reinforced with carbon and basalt fibres
Compos Part A(2014)• R. Eslami-Farsani et al.Influence of thermal conditions on the tensile properties of basalt fibre reinforced polypropylene-clay nanocomposites
Mater Des(2014)• J.S. Szabó et al.Static fracture and failure behavior of aligned discontinuous mineral fibre reinforced polypropylene composites
Polym Test(2003)
Link:A review on basalt fibre and its composites - ScienceDirect AbstractIn recent years, both industrial and academic world are focussing their attention toward the development of sustainable composites, reinforced with natural fibres. In particular, among the natural fibres (i.e. animal, vegetable or mineral) that can be used as reinforcement, the basalt ones represent the most interesting for their properties. The aim of this review is to illustrate the results of research on this topical subject. In the introduction, mechanical, thermal and chemical properties of basalt fibre have been reviewed. Moreover, its main manufacturing technologies have been described. Then, the effect of using this mineral fibre as reinforcement of different matrices as polymer (both thermoplastic and thermoset), metal and concrete has been presented. Furthermore, an overview on the application of this fibre in biodegradable matrix composites and in hybrid composites has been provided. Finally, the studies on the industrial applications of basalt fibre reinforced composites have been reviewed. IntroductionBasalt is a natural material that is found in volcanic rocks originated from frozen lava, with a melting temperature comprised between 1500° and 1700 °C [1], [2]. Its state is strongly influenced by the temperature rate of quenching process that leads to more or less complete crystallization. Perhaps 80% of basalts are made up by two essential minerals; i.e. plagiocene and pyroxene. Analyzing the chemical composition it is possible to observe that SiO2 is the main constituent and Al2O3 is the second one [1], [3], [4]. In Table 1 is reported the typical composition, as identified by Militky et al. [1] and Deák et al. [3]. Basalt fibre, which was developed by Moscow Research Institute of Glass and Plastic in 1953–1954, is a high-tech fibre invented by the former Soviet Union after 30 years of research and development, and its first industrial production furnace that adopted 200 nozzles drain board combination oven bushing process was completed in 1985 at Ukraine fibre laboratory [5]. The base cost of basalt fibres varies in dependence of the quality and type of raw material, production process and characteristics of the final product. As the cost, the chemical and mechanical properties depend from the composition of the raw material. Differences in terms of composition and elements concentration give difference in thermal and chemical stability and more or less good mechanical and physical properties [6]. Overall, the manufacturing process of this kind of fibre is similar to that of glass fibre, but with less energy consumed and no additives, which makes it cheaper than glass or carbon fibres. Using a natural volcanic basalt rock as raw material, basalt fibre is produced by putting raw material into furnace where it is melted at 1450–1500 °C. After this, the molten material is forced through a platinum/rhodium crucible bushings to create fibres. This technology, named continuous spinning, can offer the reinforcement material in the form of chopped fibres or continuous fibres, that can be used in the textile field manufacturing process and have a great potential application to composite materials. In addition to the ability to be easily processed using conventional processes and equipments, the basalt fibres do not contain any other additives in a single producing process, which makes additional advantage in cost [7]. Blowing melt technologies are proposed for the production of short and cheap basalt fibres characterized by poor mechanical properties [3]. Continuous basalt fibres are produced by spinneret method (see Fig. 1) similarly to glass fibres. Recently, Kim et al. [8] proposed melt-spinning method based on dielectric heating in order to produce fibres on laboratory scale.The increasing application of basalt fibre raised the question whether basalt fibre is harmful to health.Even if asbestos and basalt fibres present similar composition, basalt seems to be safe, because of different morphology and surface properties avoid any carcinogenic or toxicity effects, which are presented by asbestos instead [9], [10]. In particular, Kogan et al. [11] made rats inhale air containing asbestos and basalt fibres for 6 months. In the case of asbestos fibres at a dose of 1.7 g kg−1 (referred to the body weight of the rat), one third of the animals died, while a dose of 2.7 g kg−1 killed all the rats. In the case of the basalt fibre, all the animals survived even when the dose reached the 10 g kg−1 concentration. Similar investigations were conducted by McConnell et al. [12] and they also concluded that basalt fibres pose no risk to human beings. It is know that the fibrous fragments with diameter (d) of 1.5 μm or less and length (l) of 8 μm or greater should be handled and disposed of using the widely accepted procedures for asbestos. Fibres falling within the following three criteria are of concern [13]: • fibres with diameters lower than 1.5 μm (some say <3.5 μm) remain airborne and are respirable;• fibres with an l/d aspect ratio higher than 3 do not seem to cause the serious problems associated with asbestos;• fibres durable in the lungs do not cause problems if they are decomposed in the lungs. Since most of nonpolymeric fibres have diameter significantly higher than 3.5 μm but break into long thin pieces, emission of particles, including fibres, occurs during handling. For simulation of these phenomena, the abrasion of basalt weaves was made by Militký et al. [1]. The experimental results showed that, because the mean value of fibre fragment diameter is the same as diameter of fibres, no splitting of fibres during fracture occurs. The aspect ratio l/d of basalt fibre fragments is equal to 20.8, higher than the critical value. Overall basalt fibres show several advantages, which make them a good alternative to glass fibres as reinforcing material in composites used in several fields such as marine, automotive, sporting equipment, civil, etc. In particular, basalt fibres have mechanical properties similar to those of glass ones (see Table 2). Moreover, basalt fibres are non-combustible, they have high chemical stability [4], [15], and good resistance to weather, alkaline and acids exposure. Moreover, basalt fibres can be used from very low temperatures (i.e. about −200 °C) up to the comparative high temperatures (i.e. in the range 600–800 °C) [3], [7], [16], [17], [18]. The thermal stability that depend from the composition of the raw material and the presence of a large amount of micro-pores that prevent convection and thermal radiation of the air are reasons to think to use basalt fibres fabrics in thermal insulation and passive fire protection applications [6], [19], [20]. In particular, the thermal gravimetric analysis performed by Hao and Yu [20] shows that the mass loss occurs in the temperature range of 200–350 °C for both basalt and glass fibres (Fig. 2). However, the basalt fibre has better thermal stability than glass fibre. In Table 3 the parameters of thermal decomposition of the fibres from analysis of TG curves are reported (To the onset temperature of the decomposition, Ti the temperature at which the mass loss is maximal, Tt the terminal temperature of the decomposition).The main factor determining the heat temperature stability of basalt fibres is their crystallization behaviour. Crystallization ability primarily depends on fibre chemical composition as well as heat treatment conditions. In particular, due to its high content of iron oxides, crystallization in basalt fibre begins with oxidation of ferrous cations and formation of spinel structure phase on the fibre surface: i.e. divalent cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+) diffuse from the interior to the surface where they react with environmental oxygen forming nanocrystalline layers CaO, MgO, (Mg,Fe)3O4. Moreover, with increasing temperature the crystallization of pyroxene phases takes place on the spinel crystals, which act as nucleation sites. The crystallization of continuous basalt fibre during heat treatment was studied in details [21], [22]. It is worth nothing that the crystallization ability of basalt fibre can be selectively controlled by doping with other elements: for instance, the effect of zirconium oxide on the crystallization and thermal stability of basalt fibres was analyzed by Lipatov et al. [23]. For the first time, the chemical durability of basalt fibre was studied by Ramachandran et al. as early as 1981 [24]. The authors stated that this fibre has excellent resistance to alkaline attack, but it has poor resistance to acids. The better mechanical behaviour of the basalt fibres than glass ones after corrosion treatments was then shown by Nasir et al. [25]. Even if the corrosion mechanism is similar, the degradation in E-glass fibres is more severe and it is concluded that basalt fibres would be a suitable replacement in corrosive environments. However, other authors showed better resistance of the basalt fibres in acid environment rather than in alkali one [4]. The ageing of glass and basalt fibres with different chemical constitutions in NaOH and cement solutions was carried out by Scheffler et al. [16]. They showed that the corrosion in NaOH solution leads to a strong dissolution of the outer layer of the glass and basalt fibres, whereas during ageing in cement solution at the same pH-value a limited, local attack is revealed. In particular, in NaOH solution the failure stress steadily decreases, being interrupted by phases of increasing stresses. In contrast, the filaments in cement solution do not reveal decreasing failure stresses over a vast interval of temperature and time. Rybin et al. [26] showed that the zirconia coating slows down the corrosion of basalt fibre in alkali solution, with higher extent by applying dense zirconia coating than the porous coating on fibre surface. Moreover, the uncoated and coated basalt fibres were used as reinforcements in cement matrix showing that the surface of the coated fibre is affected by the alkaline medium of the cement matrix to a smaller extent than the surface of as-received basalt fibre. High modulus, good strength and elastic behaviour make also this kind of fibres a good alternative to the traditional ones and in particular, continuous basalt fibres are competitive with glass fibres [3]. In Fig. 3, the tensile test diagrams of E-glass (GF), short basalt fibres (SB) and continuous basalt fibres from three different manufacturers (CB1, CB2, CB3) are shown. All tested fibres have a rigid behaviour, without plastic deformation. The tensile modulus and strength of continuous basalt fibres and glass fibre are quite similar, while short basalt fibres are considerably less stiff. Several authors showed how this kind of fibre, in terms of resistance and moduli, is comparable or better than glass fibres. For this reason, it is possible to consider them as a valid alternative to those one [10]. The mechanical strength of basalt fibres is thought to be closely related to the presence of surface heterogeneities such as surface flaws, structure defects and impurities [27]. These heterogeneities make the measured mechanical properties remarkably lower than their maximum theoretical values. Wei et al. [28], [29] have synthesized by Sol-Gel method coatings made from pure epoxy and SiO2 nanoparticle modified epoxy composite and from epoxy/SiO2 hybrid material, with the aim to modify the basalt fibres by the synthesized epoxy/SiO2 hybrid material. The experimental results showed that the hybrid coating is formed on the surface of the basalt fibres, the surface roughness of basalt fibres is increased and the tensile strength of basalt fibre multifilament yarn is improved. In particular, when the content of SiO2 was 5%, the modification effect has reached its best performance.Another feature of the basalt fibres is their good compatibility with the matrix materials even if there are some research focused on the surface treatment of these fibres in order to modify their surface morphology and improve their wettability with the matrix material [30], [31]. Section snippets Thermoset polymer In these last years, basalt fibres were used as reinforcement of thermoset polymers as epoxy, polyester and vinyl ester resins to manufacture composite structures useful in several applications. In particular, due to its good features as mechanical properties, resistance to moisture absorption and to corrosive liquids and environments, durability in service and great versatility, the epoxy resin has been the thermoset polymer most commonly investigated as matrix for basalt fibre reinforced Metallic matrices As discussed in the previous section of this review, basalt fibres have been widely used as reinforcement both of thermoset and of thermoplastic polymers in the last decades. Due to their ceramic nature and to their less price than other ceramic fibres, basalt fibres represent a good candidate as reinforcing components also in metallic matrices. Nevertheless, the applicability of basalt fibre as a reinforcing material for metal–matrix composites (MMCs) has been marginally investigated. Casting Concrete matrices Thanks to their excellent properties, basalt fibres have been used also as reinforcement for concrete materials. In particular, Li and Su [119], [120] showed that the addition of basalt fibre can significantly improve deformation and energy absorption capacities of geopolymeric concrete while there is no notable improvement in dynamic compressive strength. Jiang et al. [121] showed that adding basalt fibres reduces markedly dry shrinkage of cement mortar, especially at early ages. Moreover, the Industrial applications Thanks to their optimal properties, basalt fibres could be widely applied to many fields, such as corrosion resistance stuff in the chemical industry [140], wear and friction stuff in the automobile industry [141], target area of anti-low velocity impact [102], reinforcing material in construction [6], high temperature-insulation of automobile catalysts [142], fire protection [143] and resistance [144]. In the automotive, basalt fibres are widely used for production of car headliners. The main Conclusions Basalt fibres can be considered environmentally friendly and non-hazardous materials. It is not a new material, but its applications are surely innovative in many industrial and economic fields, from building and construction to energy efficiency, from automotive to aeronautic, thanks to its good mechanical, chemical and thermal performances. Hence, basalt fibre has gained increasing attention as a reinforcing material especially compared to traditional glass fibres. The production process, even Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to all the publishers (e.g. Elsevier Publishers, SAGE, Springer, John Wiley and Sons) and authors who permitted to use figures and tables from their publications. References (145)• Z.S. Wu et al.Tensile fatigue behaviour of FRP and hybrid FRP sheets
Compos Part B(2010)• R. Petrucci et al.Mechanical characterisation of hybrid composite laminates based on basalt fibres in combination with flax, hemp and glass fibres manufactured by vacuum infusion
Mat Des(2013)• I.D.G. Ary Subagia et al.Effect of stacking sequence on the flexural properties of hybrid composites reinforced with carbon and basalt fibres
Compos B Eng(2014)• T. CziganySpecial manufacturing and characteristics of basalt fibre reinforced hybrid polypropylene composites: mechanical properties and acoustic emission study
Compos Sci Technol(2006)• T. Tábi et al.Investigation of injection moulded poly(lactic acid) reinforced with long basalt fibres
Compos Part A(2014)• D. Kurniawan et al.Atmospheric pressure glow discharge plasma polymerization for surface treatment on sized basalt fibre/polylactic acid composites
Compos Part B(2012)• L. Mészáros et al.Preparation and mechanical properties of injection moulded polyamide 6 matrix hybrid nanocompositi
Compos Sci Technol(2013)• J. Wang et al.Combined effects of fibre/matrix interface and water absorption on the tribological behaviors of water-lubricated polytetrafluoroethylene-based composites reinforced with carbon and basalt fibres
Compos Part A(2014)• R. Eslami-Farsani et al.Influence of thermal conditions on the tensile properties of basalt fibre reinforced polypropylene-clay nanocomposites
Mater Des(2014)• J.S. Szabó et al.Static fracture and failure behavior of aligned discontinuous mineral fibre reinforced polypropylene composites
Polym Test(2003)